The language of the ancient Macedonians

The most important Greek dialects of the Greek peninsula and Asia Minor around 500 e.g..

Dimitri E.. Evangelides

The Greek language, according to the newest scientific opinions((a)), formed in Greece, after the arrival of Proto-Greek, who although assimilated and disappeared gradually their previously established peoples (= Proellines), but influenced culturally and cultural. The Proellines speaking their own languages ​​and therefore clearly influenced the shaping of Greek language. Result of this process((b)) was the first single proto-Greek decay into three dialects between 2200/2100 e.g.. and 1900 e.g.. i.e.. the final installation of Proto-Greeks in a relatively narrow band that included current Epirus and part of N. (D). Illyridos, Western Macedonia and B. (A). part of Thessaly (see. Charter), until the start of the movement of these gender, mainly in southern regions.((c))

Initial proto-Greek equality facilities

The dialects they were:

1. A very archaic form of subsequent Ionic-Attica dialectal

2. One also archaic form of so-called West / northwest / continental dialectal (this arose later Dorian Laconia, Crete etc., the dialect of Elis, the Aitoliki, the Neo-Achaean, and dialects of the three major racial groups of Epirus - Thesprotians, Molossos, Chaonia) and

3. The so-called Central Dialect, which is then cleaved in wind (referred to as proto-Wind) and the Arcadian (the subsequent Arkadi-Cypriot).

Completing the picture mention that around 1600 e.g.. a aiolofonon Achaean portion emigrated from Thessaly TO (= Achaia Fthiotis) BA Peloponnese. There, their dialect was showing novelties and is influenced by Arcadian (later Arkadi Cypriot) dialect of central Peloponnese (wherein around 1900 e.g.. They had migrated and settled the Arkadofonoi, coming from the area of ​​today's Western Macedonia). So finally reached our known, the signs with Linear B, dialect of the Mycenaean kingdoms, which was previously reported as Achaean (It should not be confused with the aforementioned Neo-Achaean, a Doric dialect), while today has prevailed in general to call Mycenaean. With the collapse of the Mycenaean world, Mycenaean dialect gradually ceased to be used to permanently disappear around 1150 e.g.. End, the intersection of wind and western elements Dialectology, encountered the Thessaly and the Boeotian dialect.

So what was the linguistic relationship of the ancient Macedonian speech in relation to the above dialects of the Greek language;

Before we look at the answers to this question it should be recalled that the investigations and studies on the Macedonian showed excellent progress over the past thirty years, thus we can now refer to linguistic raw material, from which we can reach specific scientific conclusions.

Scientific however discussions began virtually from the early 19th century with the publication in Leipzig, Germany on a short study by Phi. G.. Stourts titled "On the dialect of the free Macedonian»((d)), aimed to present the views and research on the position of Macedonian as a dialect of the Greek language and mainly by issuing the 1825 of the project (C). O. Myller «About the residence, the origin and the oldest history of the Macedonian people»((e)). Unfortunately the discussion of scientific soon turned to politics and became an endless series of confrontations for the Greek character or not this language.((f))

As observed: «…For several decades there has been intense controversy about the inclusion or non-Macedonian in Greek dialects. The problem was partly due to the inadequacy of the material, early inscriptions mainly, but in exoepistimonikous agents, since the very beginning the controversy was closely dependent on the political and historical developments in the southern Balkans in the 19th and 20th century – even to this day – and territorial claims of the peoples who inhabited the area…».((g))

therefore attempting to answer the question we posed above about the relationship of ancient Macedonian dialect with other Greek dialects, We must clarify that in the past, but until relatively recently, It was difficult a simple and clear answer for lack or even the scarcity of linguistic material, allowing a variety of cases and opinions. These we can classify them into four groups, depending on the position that support:

1. The earliest position accept the view that Macedonian was a mixed language, relative of Illyrian (The position of said G. O. Müller, and Slavs mainly scientists then, as the G. Kazaroff, M. Rostovtzeff, M. Budimir, H. Baric etc.) or Thracian (supported even today by Bulgarian D. Tzanoff).

2. Another position, supported by leading scientists, accepted the Macedonian as independent Indo-European language, akin to the Greek (V. Pisani, I. Russian, G. Mihailov, P. Chantraine, I. bashful, C. D. Buck, E. Schwyzer, Vlad. georgiev, W. W. Tarn and the prominent French linguist Olivier Masson at the beginning of his career).

3. The majority, however, scientists and especially linguists advocated and supported that Macedonian was another Greek dialect (The view expounded by F.. G.. Stourts mentioned above, and the "patriarch" of Greek Linguistics C.. Manos (1848-1941), the late Professor of Linguistics at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Nick. Andrioti, and the N. Kalleris, A. Fick, Otto Hoffmann, F. Solmsen, V. Lesny, F. Geyer, N. G. L. Hammond, A. Toynbee, Ch. Edson and Olivier Masson in mature years).

4. End, We must mention the existence of a previously small portion scientists, who fulfilled a cautious attitude, citing the existence of certain ambiguities and inadequacy of linguistic material was the available time, thus find it impossible to formulating an informed position [Mainly, French linguist Antoine Meillet (1866–1936) and Italoevraios historian Arnaldo Momigliano(1908–1987)] (the).

But even ancient sources were, not only extremely sparse on the issue of the language of the Macedonians, but rather exacerbated the confusion. As aptly and clearly explained this situation:

“…The ancient writers mentioned rather rarely in the very language of the Macedonians. Summing Up (see. last Panayiotou 1992-Kapetanopoulos 1995) we could group the relevant evidence as follows:

(a). For the character of the Macedonian dialect: During the Tito Livio Macedonians, Aitolous and Akarnanes speak the same dialect – similar finding does Strabo for dialect Ipeirots and Macedonians. As we all know, idioms above all equality are in northwestern dialectic group. The testimonials are now confirmed by the dialectical inscriptions and in turn combined with indirect evidence of the sources for the affinity Dorians and Macedonians: by Herodotus (1.56) identifies Dorians and Macedonians – himself (5.20, 5.22, 8.137, 8.138), as Thucydides (2.99.3) and other later sources familiar myth that connects the royal house of Timenidon with Argos and Hercules, information indirectly confirmed by archaeological findings eg. the cataplasm published by Tiberius (1989) […] contrast, genealogical myths of Hesiod and Ellanikou connect the Macedonians with the Aeolian, but so far no major elements reinforcing this tradition.

(b). For the gradual marginalization of the Macedonian dialect: Already in the army of M. Alexander, an interactive set of different origins, the Macedonians expressed in common – dialect used only between Macedonians or in moments of intense emotion. H younger chronologically testimony dialect is the middle of the 1st century BC. and refers to retreat even before this period the Ptolemaic court. The testimony of the sources confirmed by the inscriptions.

(c). For the Macedonian dialect and common: H common spread through the Macedonian conquest and prevailed, without stopping, thanks to the Hellenistic kingdoms. So connected later in the consciousness of some Atticists very closely with the Macedonians, to the extent that the term makedonizein to acquire some of them the meaning 'speak the common’ (e.g.. Athenian, "Deipnosophistai» 3.121f-122a) – for this reason also caused their ironic comments. As evidence of this also the importance of makedonizein can confront Atticists passages, where the same type characterized by hand as "Macedonian" and from one another as a type of "tacky" using the "ignorant" or "younger"…”.((I))

We have already noted that in the last thirty years, the situation changed radically thanks to the Academy of Sciences publications Berlin epigraphic material from the Thessaloniki region (1972) and northern Macedonia (1999), and the Greek-Roman Antiquity Center (K.E.R.A.) from Upper Macedonia (1985) and the region of Veria (1998). Moreover the KERA published three collections of major names from the areas of Veria, of Edessa and expatriate Macedonians.

He clarifies and Professor AUTH. John M. loafer in an excellent article titled "The language of the ancient Macedonians • New data from Pella»((j)):

«For a long time the language of the people speaking Macedonians was discussed and different approaches. By some researchers even, BORZA the American professor and his students, it was considered that all the Greek inscriptions found in the great Touba Vergina belong to relatives of kings, since the royal tombs are. Their language say it is natural that the Greek after themselves scholars argue that the royal family and the higher class only had Hellenized. But this is the case; Obviously this argument would have been forfeited if we were Greek texts belonging to ordinary people and are dated before the time of Alexander the Great and the common Greek, say before the middle of the 4th century. e.g..

The early cemetery Agora Pella gave us the most important findings. Since the end of the 5th century. e.g.. comes the headstone Xanthos. About an impoverished child. To make the small column was reused in a piece of marble. The inscription on the column writes: XANTHOS / Demetrios / Y AND AMA / CODE SON. Of particular interest here Mother Amades. This name seems to come from the root am- they Homeric AMA-oh verb (arch. = mow) and the Macedonian suffix -dika, remember the broad s name. Observe the normal formation of the Macedonian arriving at a place the. Recent findings even from our Vergina gave three times the name of Philip's mother as Eurydice and not Eurydice. So, while examples of a few years ago were scarce today are growing daily with the discoveries of archaeologists. I remind you two finds from the cemetery of Pella, plucked from the soil recently. This golden leaves with the identity of the dead. In a sheet recorded Igisiska name, instead of Igisiski, the verb lead. I also mention that the dead was a little girl, so it -iski = Igisiski. In another recorded the name of hospitality. Another finding from the cemetery of the Market area belongs to a leaden plate inscribed, ένα katadesmo(k), as say the ancients. It is a major asset of the archaeological research conducted in Macedonia in recent years. This text, In my opinion, can decisively help in the understanding of the Macedonian dialect. As it is currently, unique interactive text Macedonian. The importance of further increases because it is relatively extensive text. This text is ready for publication, only appear, I'm sure that will widely discussed by experts linguists.

The plate was uncovered in a tomb of a humble person. The text presents relations with Attic in drafting. But differs from the Attic-Ionic group the following:

1. A and here there is the secondary, see. eg. Thetis, instead Thetimi, Fuck instead gimai, other anti another, deserted place deserted, bad rather bad.

2. The foreshortening of a and b is a not h, e.g.. When Allan Pasang instead of the other passes, widow instead widows etc..

3. General and other particularities helps us rank the text language in the group of NW Doric Greek course dialects. So that is the Macedonian and she meant when Alexander speaks to soldiers Macedonists…».

Unfortunately, old theories withdrawn difficult thus remains outdated "wisdom" still charged journals, university textbooks and projects, as aptly says Professor Milt. Hatzopoulos, indicating as examples (to avoid would say), the text of Professor P. Krosslant (R. A. Crossland), in the third volume - Part 1, the famous and very reliable otherwise "Ancient History" of the University of Cambridge in Macedonian(l) and the booklet Amerikanoroumanou Professor Eugene Borza(m).

also a typical example and dialektologikoi maps circulating in foreign (but unfortunately in Greek) literature and that restrict Greek dialects in a small segment of Greek space (southern mainland Greece, the islands and the coast of Asia Minor), and show the area of ​​Macedonia, and Epirus, inhabited by speakers of non-Greek dialects!

Robert Morkot, ed. 1996. The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece.

“Penguin Books”, p. 23.

http://www.trentu.ca/faculty/rfitzsimons/AHCL2200Y/LE 04-01.htm

http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/didact/karten/griech/grdialm.htm

(Cambridge Ancient History Vol. III part 1)

But why were these doubts and controversies about the position of the Macedonian dialect;

As Professor M. explains. Hatzopoulos(n):

«…One reason - perhaps the most important - for such resistance to assimilation of new data and the insistence on outdated theories until even the last years, is the way in which, the 19th century, the scientific debate on the Macedonian dialect and Greek non-character focused on sporadic appearance in Macedonian words and proper names - which otherwise seemed completely Greek - loudly closed pacts [voiced stops] ((b), (d), (c)) instead of the corresponding first CSCE, aichon closed pacts [originally “aspirate” unvoiced stops] (f, (I), x,), expected in other Greek dialects, eg Valakros and Verena rather bald and Ferenika…».

And it continues:

«[…] Since the mid 80s of last century the acceleration of archaeological research in Macedonia and activities of KERA "Macedonia" Program resulted in the presentation of numerous scientific papers and between them by leading linguists (Claude Brixhe, Anna Panayiotou, O. Masson, L. Dubois, Miltiades B.. Hatzopoulos) they used the newer data, which were collected, allowing to go beyond the Gordian knot, who, from the 19th century captured all the discussions surrounding the language of the ancient Macedonians, i.e.. on whether or not it was Greek. So it is no exaggeration to say that from now on the barrier that prevented the identification of the language they spoke, Philip and Alexander the Great was eliminated: The ancient Macedonian was a real and genuine Greek dialect. On this issue, all linguists and scholars actively engaged in this issue now had the same view. But it is equally true that they do not agree on everything.

Two questions still raise serious disagreements:

(a)) How explain the sporadic presence in Macedonian words and names of the notes b, (d), c instead of the corresponding phonemes f, (I), x other Greek dialects;

(b)) What is the dialectical position within the Macedonian Greek;

The first question was investigated several times in recent years, but with different conclusions by Claude Brixhe and Anna Panayotou on one side and O. Masson, L. Dubois and myself on the other.

On the subject of dialectical relations within the Macedonian Greek, apart from the above mentioned scientists, the N. G. L. Hammond and E. Voutiras also made an important contribution. As long, however, dealt, gradually I became convinced that the above two questions are closely linked or rather, that research on dialectal affinities of the Macedonian dialect can provide satisfactory explanations for this question specificity of symphonic system (of this controversial particularity of its consonantal system). […]

So the search for the symphonic system of Macedonian led to the question of Dialectology affinities of this speech which was closely connected. it was normal, The basic disagreement on the Greek or non-Greek character of Macedonian, put aside to a secondary position the question of its mounting within Greek dialects. However not completely neglected. Already, ° F. G. fall, supported by Herodotus, identified the Macedonian as a Doric dialect, while Otto Abel was precise and placed between the northern Doric dialects. Suppose Strabo and Plutarch have provided the necessary arguments to insist that Macedonians did not differ from mainland dialect.

The fundamental work of Otto Hoffmann was what decisively introduced the Wind dimension to the discussion, widely be accepted nowadays (Daskalakis, Toynbee, Goukowsky). The location for the Doric-north-west dimension made a strong restoration thanks to the prestige of J. N. Kalleris followed by G.. Mpampiniotis, the Olivier Masson and other scientists with more chiseled views (A. Tsopanakis, A. I. Thavoris, M. B. Sakellariou and Cl. bridge). Finally the N. G. L. Hammond took the most clear terms, arguing for the parallel existence of two Macedonian dialects: An Upper Macedonia closely associated with the North-Western dialects and another in Lower Macedonia lineage to Thessaly. But a new element, the publication of a comprehensive dialectology text from Macedonia, created a new situation. This text came from the discovery of a cataplasm (see. NB. k) from the first half of the 4th century BC. which was discovered in a tomb at Pella ... "^(o).

The Pella curse tablet (Archaeological Museum of Pella)

Dimensions: 30 cm X 6 cm
Text

[Thetis]And our Dionysofontos the end and gamon Recording and Allan Tan Pasang Rd-

[naik]sciences and widow and virgin, indeed Thetimas, And parkattithemai Makronas and
[per] daimosi • Crick and I NO dielexaimi and anagnoiin palein anoroxasa,
[toque] Fuck Dionysofonta, erst they were not • non gar Lavos Allan woman but the AWU,
[AWU d]E synkatagirasai Dionysofonti and midemian Allan. Iketis ymo(n) construed-
[am • Phil;]if lamented, profiles demons[the](j), dapina gar
IME friends everything and void • Other
[ID]Emin a store such as non ginitai the[Y]the wrong and bad Thetis apolitai.
[—-]AL[—-]YNM..ESPLIN emos, AWU not [(e)]Y[(d)]aimona and blessed genestai
[—–] THE[.].[—-].[..]..E.E.EO[ ]A.[.]E..MEGE[—]

1. [For the Thetis]us and Dionysofonta ceremony and wedding write the curse, and for (marriage) all other Rd-

2. [naik]s, widows and virgins (with him), but especially for Thetis and assign (this curse) in Makrona and

3. [the] demons. And that only when unearth and unwrap and reread (these words)

4. [then] (only can) marry the Dionysofon and not before. And may not marry another woman, only me

5. and may I grow old with Dionysofonta and any other. Your Iketides am:

6. show compassion to [Kiss;], favorite demons, humbly (I beg you) I left with all my favorite

7. But please keep (this written) for me as not these events so lost Thetis badly

8. and give me bliss and beatitude.

We should note that many "well-wishers" were quick to reduce the enormous importance of this discovery for linguistic research, with arguments ranging from a simple skepticism to non-cases. The professor Milt. Hatzopoulos It is apostomotikos this issue:

"... In my opinion the presence (language) types such dielexaimi, IME, anoroxasa, dapina, which is expected in Macedonian, but completely foreign to North-western dialects, confirmation is decisive for the local origin of the author of the text and allows us to reject the unlikely case that the text was probably the work of a Epirot resident who lived in Pella ... '.(p)
Controversial according

We return to the notorious question of the existence of the Macedonian loudly closed pacts [voiced stops] ((b), (d), (c)) instead of the corresponding first CSCE, aichon closed pacts [originally “aspirate” unvoiced stops] (f, (I), x), existing in other Greek dialects.

In this issue, As we mentioned before, there are two views about the origin of the phenomenon. The first view is supported primarily by Professor Anna Panayiotou:

"... Certain ancient (by Plutarch and after) and Byzantine sources indicate that the Macedonians «stained» B instead of F. (and once D instead of I.) in anthroponymia, in devotional epithets, months of the Macedonian calendar and Macedonian "language" – grammarians and lexicographers maintain that anthroponymio Kiss ([phvla]) e.g.. corresponded to the Macedonian Villa [bvla] (or since the end of the classical period [vvla] according to some researchers, κυρίως Babiniotis 1992). Ayti the difference was considered by most linguists and scholars as absolutely essential, separated not Macedonian from all Greek dialects – Mycenaean Greek including -, because it implies different development pacts in the phonological system of the Macedonian: i.e., according to this theory, the Indo-European sonorous CSCE * bh, *dh, *gh have Trap in Greek in aicha CSCE [ph th kh] (F graphics, Θ, X respectively) having lost their loudness, while the Macedonian Trap are respectively [b d g] (B charts, (D), C respectively), ie have lost their shagginess. According to other scholars, the difference reflects developments within the Greek (apokleistopoiisi), position rather difficult to reconcile with the newest data from the dialect texts (see. last Brixhe & Panayotou 1994, 211 and 216-218, Panagiotou 1997, 202). Perhaps it is more economical to assume that the names that have this feature is language remains one sex who lived in the area and which assimilated linguistically by the Macedonians, it is clear that as early as the 5th century BC. the only traces of this language had been limited to a field eminently conservative, nomenclature. Already in the 4th century BC, when the writing is beginning to spread in Macedonia, in the linguistic sense of Macedonians these names were, without distinction apparently, part of the Macedonian linguistic material and tradition…». (q)

The sex which says Professor A.. Panagiotou are Phrygians, thus accepting the influence of a Phrygian coating (adstratum) the formation of the Macedonian, obviously influenced by the positions of the colleague, French linguist Claude Brixhe, Professor at the University of Nancy, which has carried out considerable research and studies in (dead centuries) Phrygian language.

The professor Milt. Hatzopoulos not, however, accept this assumption and argues that the existence of resonant closed consonants b, (c), d of Macedonian due to the influence of neighboring dialects of Perraivos and Thessaly. It supports a strong argument and persuasion:

"... If we take into account the geographical distribution of types with sonorous closed according to Thessaly, we observe that they are concentrated in the northern part of the region, mainly in Pelasgiotis and Perraivos, with the largest concentration in the second. But in Macedonia these guys are unevenly distributed. They found in considerable numbers and variety - offering testimony to the original vitality of the phenomenon - in three cities or regions: in Vergina, Veria and Pieria. But all of these are located in the distant south-eastern part of Macedonia, in direct contact with the Perraivos. I think this just our geographic distribution provides the solution of the problem. So we are dealing with a phonetic peculiarity of Greek dialect, spoken on both sides of Olympus and is undoubtedly due to a substrate or coating, likely, but not necessarily, Phrygian.

If any doubt remained in relation to the Greek origin of the phenomenon, will dissolve the names of two people: Kevalinos and Vettalos.

It is generally accepted that the first comes from the Indo-European root * ghebh(e)l-. If according to the "Phrygian" case, loss of sonority of "CSCE" did not take place before the anomoiosi of exhaled, the type which should form the Greek dialect of Macedonia should be Gevalinos rather Kevalinos, which is the result of early loss of sonority of "CSCE" after their anomoiosis. The Claude Brixhe and Anna Panayotou, fully realizing the problem, evade accepting (that the phenomenon is due to) "Outdated dialektismo" (“faux dialectisme”).

From the other, the name Vettalos, It is obviously the type of Macedonian national Thettalos, used as a persons name, with possible transfer of bluefin tuna. We also know that the contrast between Atticus Thettalos and Boeoticos Fettalos, It requires an initial * gwhe-.

Given that on one hand the Phrygian, unlike the Greek, the Indo-European lip-palate(*)(labiovelars, i.e.. consonants * kw, *gw, *gwh. Nb. WEU) They lost their palate notes not keep any trace of it, the type which should inherit the Greek dialect of Macedonia, according to the "Phrygian" case, should show an initial * gen-, (i.e.. Gettalos. Nb. WEU), which clearly is not the case.

From the other, type Vettalos, the guy whom the Macedonians pronounced with a strong initial consonant, It can be interpreted in a type of continental Wind dialects, in which, as we know, the 'CSCE' lip-palate followed by a / i / or / e / became simply sonorous labial. The Aeolian type Fettalos, behind the Vettalos, gives us a terminus post quem (latin. "Limit after which ', i.e.. the earliest time that can happen an event. Nb. WEU) the phenomenon of conversion into resounding pact (the voicing phenomenon). This is because if we take into account the spelling of Mycenaean signs, which still maintains a separate series of symbols lip-palate, it is necessary (= mandatory) be dated to the above phenomenon in a post-Mycenaean period, well after the removal of lip-palate, which means the end of the second millennium BC. the earliest and probably in the Greek world. Clearly in the case of formula Vettalos, an ad hoc (latin. thereupon, i.e.. constructed. Nb. WEU) assumption of "obsolescence dialektismou" (“faux dialectisme”) it is unacceptable, due to the late season time where someone hypothetical Macedonian patriot would be tempted to resort to such a form of language for national named Thessalians from time when he was replaced by the type of Attica 'common' Thettalos. Reprocessing of a type Vettalos, sounds supposedly more "Macedonian" (more “Macedonian-sounding”), Our returns on a scientific level knowledge had achieved the 19th century…». (r)

____________________________________________________

(*) The fthongologiko system of the original Proto-Indo-European (TIA) Language included a complex consonants system distinguished in Hailey (labials), dental (dental), gallery (velars), Lip-palate (lip-velars) etc.. The important category of TIA pacts were called closed (stops), which in turn are divided into aicha (unvoiced/voiceless stops), sonorous (voiced stops) and sonorous CSCE (voiced aspirates/aspirated stops). So we have the following classification:

ΠΙΕ ΑΗΧΑ ΗΧΗΡΑ ΗΧΗΡΑ ΔΑΣΕΑ

Χειλικά p b bh

Dental t d dh

Υπερωϊκά k g gh

Χειλο-υπερωϊκά kw gw GWh

As Professor explains (C). Bambiniotis, in Proto-Greek (IP) language, Although the lips gave respective sounds Fr., (b), f, their sounds Dental t, (d), (I), their palate notes of Mr,(c),x. We observe that the sonorous CSCE TIA in IP became aicha CSCE. The lip-palatal sounds gradually disappeared and evolved in the respective chelating, dental or palatal, depending on the vowel that followed. For example, the resonant shaggy phoneme gwh converted into F if a follower or, in i follow if e or i and x if followed th. (s)

conclusions

The Macedonian belonged to the West / Northwest / Continental ancient dialects as distinct dialect with its own peculiarities and idioms and was the vernacular of the majority of the inhabitants of the Macedonian Kingdom. But in certain areas of Lower Macedonia, especially those neighboring the Thessaly, residents spoke an archaic dialect wind, residue of the original equipment of Proto-Aeolians, and newer influences from neighboring tribes aiolofona, including Perevians, the Ainians, and Thessalians, with their mixed dialect aiolodoriki. By the end of the 6th century BC. about, It ceased to be used as a colloquial and survived only in place names, months and persons. The existence of these two dialectical forms resulted in the formation of different concepts in ancient writers and the wording of conflicting views showing the Macedonians sometimes as Dorians (e.g.. Herodotus) and sometimes as aiolofonous (e.g.. Hesiod, Hellanicus).

An accurate and extremely convincing historical explanation of this phenomenon has been formulated by Professor Milt. Hatzopoulos:

"... In the three brothers Temenid, the mythical founders of the Macedonian Kingdom according to Herodotus, since ancient times there was the suspicion that they had not come from the Peloponnesian Argos, but from Argos Orestikon Upper Macedonia, and therefore the Argeadians name was given not only to the royal dynasty, but throughout the clan followed three brothers in the adventure of the conquest of Lower Macedonia. Knowing that Orestes belonged to Molossiki group, It is easily understood how, the significant and very prestigious elite of the new Kingdom, imposed her own (North-west, NB. WEU) dialect, while the ancient Aeolian dialect - the existence of which had given rise to some ancient, but younger authors to consider aiolofonous Macedonians - downgraded to the status of a vernacular substrate (the old Aeolic dialect relegated to the status of a substratum patois), some characteristics of which […] They survived only in the form of minimum residue, generally marginalized, with the exception of certain names sites, personal names and names of months, which had been established by tradition…».(k)

WEU

NOTES
((a)) See. about: M. Garašanin: C.A.H. Too.. III part 1, SLE. 142 – Cambridge, 1982. J. P. Mallory: In Search of the INDO-EUROPEANS, SLE. 69 – London, 1991. M. Sakellariou: Greek Nation History, Tom. A pp. 364-365 - Athena, 1972. (A). – Phi. Chrestides (ed.): "History of the Greek language: From its beginnings to late antiquity " – Thessaloniki, 2001, and the most recent and katatopistikotato David W. Anthony: The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World σσ. 368-369- Princeton N. J. 2007
((b)) See. the effect of different linguistic substrates (substratum) and coatings (adstratum) the formation and development of languages ​​in the classical work of James M. Anderson: Structural Aspects of Language Change σσ. 89-95 – London, 1973
((c)) See. M. Sakellariou: IE. ibid. SLE. SS. 365-366
((d)) F. G. fall, Macedonian dialect liber, Leipzig, 1808
((e)) G. O. Müller, About the residence, the origin and the early history of the Macedonian people, Berlin, 1825
((f)) Miltiades Hatzopoulos: The speech of the ancient Macedonians, in the light of recent epigraphic discoveries – VI International Symposium on Ancient Macedonia, Thessaloniki, 1999
((g)) See. Anna Panayiotou: The position of the Macedonian – From the “History of the Greek language: From early to late antiquity” – EDS. A.-F. Christidis, SLE. 319-325. Thessaloniki, 2001 - Greek language centre & Institute Of Modern Greek Studies [Manolis Triantafyllides Foundation].
(the) See. Details of the above in Miltiades Hatzopoulos: The speech of the ancient Macedonians ό.π.
((I)) See. (A). Panagiotou: The position of the Macedonian ibid.
((j)) The whole is the Internet published version at: http://abnet.agrino.org/htmls/D/D009.html)
(k) A common method in ancient Greece to achieve a purpose (low educational level and intellectual people) with magical acts and sentences were the cataplasm (= Magic ties). Curses or erotic invocations were written mainly in lead plates (cheap and durable material, although they have found plates of precious metals), which wrapped in a cylinder and pierced through and through with a nail (nailing). Then they threw cataplasm in graves or wells that come into direct contact with the spirits of the underworld.
(l) See. R. A. Crossland: “The Language of the Macedonians” σελίδες 843-847, στο Τhe Cambridge Ancient History – Vol. III, part 1 (2nd Edition 1982, Reprinted 1990).
(m) E. N. Stock Exchange: Before Alexander – Constructions of Early Macedonia (1999)
(n) See. Miltiades Hatzopoulos: The speech of the ancient Macedonians ό.π.
(o) See. M. Hatzopoulos: The speech ... ibid.
(p) See. M. Hatzopoulos: The speech ... ibid.
(q) See. Anna Panayiotou: The position of the Macedonian – “History of the Greek language: From early to late antiquity” ibid.
(r) See. M. Hatzopoulos: The speech ... ibid.
(s) See. (C). Mpampiniotis: "Brief Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics and History of Greek Language", SS. 65-66 - Athena 1977
(k) See. M. Hatzopoulos: The speech ... ibid.

First published in the third volume / issue of the magazine "New Hermes the Scholar" (September to December 2011)

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ALEXANDROS Man in Armour Rembrandt Art Gallery and Museum Kelvingrove 1655

Alexander the great stayed in the history of the world's largest stratilatis and excelled on the wisdom of, the lightning-fast wit, the audacity of, but above all for the martial abilities even when the conditions weren't favorable.

THE PHILIPPEIO AFIERWTHIKE BY FILIPPO B΄META THE BATTLE OF CHAIRWNEIAS AND APOPERATWTHIKE BY M. ALEXANDRO (Opposite the entrance, in the middle of the Cella, on the semi-circular pedestal was set 5 chryselefantines plastic pictures, illustrating the members of Royal family: of m. Alexandrou, his parents, Philip and Olympias, and the parents of Philip, Amynta and Eurydice.)
At the age of 18 Alexander chronwno took part in the first major battle in Chaeronea the 338 e.g.. in the pleyro of his father Philip II’ King of the Macedonian Kingdom '. The battle was decisive and goal was the victory that will help shape the political situation in Greece. Alexander fought administering the Thessalian Cavalry.
The Timokleia was a Thibaia Aristocrat, sister of Theagenes, the head of the army of Thebes at the battle of Chaeronea,
After winning the Commander, the city razed, thousands were killed and sold as slaves. Alexander ordered not only destroyed the House of the poet Pindar. Alexander had delivered as trophy honor and fortune of Thebes, at the disposal of the army.The Timokleia arrested and driven to Alexander afoy killed , throwing him into a well a officer from the Thraki.Alexander asked, What waited to happen after the Act of. She stood with courage towards him , stating that unless the holding shackles of katasparasse him with its own claws. Alexander cultivated and just gave command to leave the free Timokleia and his soldiers to protect and to lead safely to the House of Pindar .

THE ALEXANDROS TIMOKLEIA And Domenico Zampieri 1615 MUSEUM LOUVROU

THE BATTLE OF GRANIKOU 1665 Charles Le Brun MUSEUM BERSALLIWN

This was followed by the battle of the Graniko River 334 e.g.. towards the Persians, which constituted the first real confrontation with the Achaemenid Empire. The battle was victorious for Alexander and became a strategic advantage for the future course of the Macedonian troops on the coast of Asia minor from the spoils left in the battlefield the barbarians, sent 300 armor in Athens, to decorate with them the Parthenon. In a votive inscription instructed to write the following: "Alexander Philip and the Greeks, except the Lacedaemonians from the barbarians of the Asian oikoyntwn '. Excluded the Lacedaemonians and stigmatize them m’ This way, because it was the only Greeks who did not took part in the campaign.

In the spring of 333 e.g.. arrived in town Gordian. There was a car with a complicated knot, known as Gordian knot. According to tradition whoever the solve, would become Lord of all Asia. Alexander without wavering he cut with the sword of the intractable knot wanting to show so that his sword will conquer Asia. After it passed the towering Taurus Mountains and getting sweaty on the river fell into the waters of Kydno, to cool. It got heavy, but his personal doctor Phillip saved him.

The ALEXANDROS KOBEI The GORDIO Giovanni Paolo Panini CLOSELY 1718 Walters Art Museum

Not so long ago and the Macedonians led by Alexander encountered the enemy troops the Persians which led by their leader Darius c’ at Issus the 333 e.g..

The Battle At ISSUS Albrecht Altdorfer In 1528
The battle was significant and the victory even more important since the few Macedonians to flee them aside far more Persians. 500.000 Persians disbanded again and Darius escaped by fleeing. But left in the hands of Alexander's mother, his wife and his children. He, however, was carried with magnanimity and ippotismo to high captives of.

The FAMILY Of DARIOU BROSTA STON ALEXANDRO Veronese, Paolo 1565 National Gallery LONDON

Then proceeded south and arrived in Phoenicia, which seized me and captured its fleet. Also occupied Palestine and Egypt. There he left his army and with a few choice men proceeded in the desert, to visit the Oracle of Ammona Jupiter. After an adventurous journey arrived at xakoysmeno shrine, where welcomed the priests with great prices and the high priest he addressed him ' child of Zeus». From there equipped with oracles that were saying that I was dominating in Asia, He returned to Egypt and started to prepare his army for new battles. After, Once engraved the shores of Egypt and near the mouth of the Nile the walls and streets of the new town, of Alexandria, back in Asia.

The ALEXANDROS IDRYEI The ALEXANDRIA Placido Costanzi 1736 Walters Art Museum

During the same year (333 e.g.) Alexander the great on his path towards Phoenicia took another important win but this time the strategic importance. Besieged for about 10 months and eventually conquered the city of tyre which in the opinion of Alexander possessed exaichoysa geographical location strategic nature.
THE SIEGE OF TYROY

“Friends and allies, I see that our course towards Egypt are not safe, as the Persians prevailing at sea. Nor is it safe to continue the pursuit of Darius, as we have behind us the insolvent city of tyre and the Persians occupy Cyprus and Egypt. I have problems especially in Greece. If the Persians regain the domination of the coast, While we will proceed against Babylon and Darius, We carry larger forces the war in Greece. There from a Sparta fights us open, from the other Athens the control currently more because of fear and less because us likes. But if you destroy the Tyros, not only will prevail throughout Phoenicia, but the most important and most combat-capable piece of the Persian Navy, The Phoenician, will pass obviously in our hands. ”
With these words easily convinced them to attack the Tyros. He was influenced also by a divine sign· on the same night, saw dream that approached the walls of tyre and Hercules himself received him and led him to the city. The Aristandros explained saying that Tyr will be occupied with trouble, because the labours of Hercules with effort made. It seemed really difficult the siege of tyre.
THE SIEGE OF TYROY

As the battle of Gaugamela or battle in Gaygamila refers to the last and greatest battle of Alexander c’ Macedon against Darius Iii Kodomanoy the 331 EUP, Thanks to which Alexander bent the last resistance of the great King in his course for the seizure of the Achaemenid Empire. Possessing the Alexander coast If. Mediterranean and neutralize the Persian fleet, He was about to pass in Mesopotamia. Before start, I had to suppress the insurrection of the Jews of Samareias who had burn Andromacho alive, General area.
The same evening (20 September 331 EUP) Total Lunar Eclipse happened and fear spread in the camp, as the Eclipse was considered a bad omen. The Soothsayer however reminded the Aristandos troop that according to them Persian magicians the Sun is the emblem of the Greeks and the Moon emblem of Persians. Then he sacrificed to the Moon, the Sun and the Earth the soothsayer and examining the carcasses found that Eclipse was favourable for the Greeks and that within a month would become victorious battle.
Alexander, however, is not fully satisfied. As living Darius, the conquest of the Persian State cannot be considered to have finished. For’ This continues the persecution of.
Moving overpowers Babylon, Susa with the Royal treasures of Persians and lastly the ancient capital, Persepolis, where were the fabulous Palace of Darius and the tombs of his ancestors. There was Alexander King of Persia and then continued the pursuit of Darius. But meanwhile the satrap Bessus of Bactrian captured the Darius, in order to make himself King of Persia and, when escaping prosecution by Alexander saw that Darius would fall into the hands of the Macedonians, killed him. Later Alexander caught the Bisso and surrendered to the Persians, to punish those like like.
The battle in Gaygamila (329 e.g.) meant perfect disaster of the Persian army and the death of Darius the Persian State's entire allegiance to Alexander.

THE BATTLE OF GAYGAMILWN GIANNIS NIKOS (ISTORIKOS CIRCLE)

In India passed after the siege of Aornoy Stone for the celebration of epinikeiwn built Temple and sacrificial to the Nice Athena. When the Aornos Petra Arriano (Pir Shar) It was rock and unique access immune was only a path, artificial and rough .

AORNOS PETRA Pakistan table area 1850, of General James Abbott
The cities fell one after the other, until reaching the Ydaspi River met the King Porus waiting for him on the other side with a large army, Cavalry and 200 elephants. But managed to pass his army across, to beat the Indians and capture the captive Porus, whom, because admired for his bravery, the forgave and instructed again the administration of his country. In this battle he was killed and the Bucephalus. Alexander burried with his favorite horse and the place that he built a city, which gave the name Alexandria Bucephalous.

THE BATTLE OF YDASPI Nicolaes Pietersz Berchem 1640 THE BATTLE BETWEEN ALEXANDRE ET PORUS
But his troops were tired and refused to continue the conquests. Then Alexander had to return (326 e.g.). In the land of Mallwn was wounded and had to be killed. Then proceeded to Patalla. After a part of the army sent to the fleet in Persia. These leader had put Admiral Nearchos. The same with the rest of the Army crossed the desert Gedrwsia, where they lost the 3/4 men and reached the capital of Cigars.

THE THRIAMBOS ALEXANDRE (THE ENTRANCE TO VAVYLONA) Charles Le Brun 1673 MUSEUM LOUVROU
Alexander, completed the unification of autonomous Greek city-States of the era, and conquered almost all over the then known world (Asia Minor, Persia Egypt etc), arriving on the outskirts of India and returned to Babylon where he began to organize the circumnavigation of Arabia and explore the coast of North Africa.

THE MEGAS ALEXANDROS EFIPPOS GIANNIS NIKOS

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Vergina Sun Crest Argead dynasty

 

With regard to the period of the founding of the Royal House of Macedonia nothing is perfectly clear. The beginning is placed between myth and history, the founder of allegedly lived about the same time with its founder House of Achaemenides. This coincidence becomes even more interesting, After the 6^the e.g.. century Darius ' passed in Europe and made it the Amynta 1st vassal of, inaugurating a fatal rivalry for both Houses. Two centuries later the Alexander Iii passed in Asia and campaigned against the Achaimenidikis Empire. The fourth year of hostilities murdered Darius Iii, the eleventh time died, Alexander Iii and with them died and the two Royal Houses.

According to Herodotus, three sons of Timenoy, the Gayanis, the Aeropos and the Perdiccas I, driven out of the country from Argos and took refuge first in Illyria and after in the city Lebaia of upper Macedonia, where bioporizontan making sure local animals (I guess Paiona) ruler. When it appeared something was interpreted as a divine warning, Regulus he ordered them to leave the country of. Those requested accrued wages and he "blinded by the gods"I showed them the rays of the Sun, entering through the chimney of the House, telling them "To the salary, you deserve». The two biggest were surprised, but the younger they had sword, the pulled out and saying "King we accept everything,what you give us», prospoieito that was gathered from the soil the sunbeams and put on the robe of.

After they left the three brothers, King stalked them considering that the youngster had raised claims of Perdiccas the throne and throughout its territory under the Sun. Those fled over "gardens of Midas"and starting from the Mount Vermio captured first the neighboring places and after all Macedonia. Delivered and the myth that was followed by a flock of kids Perdiccas and point, who stopped kids (goats), He decided to build his capital, which reasonably named Aigai.

Argead path – from Argos to Macedonia

The royal dynasty of Macedonia was named Timenides ή Argeades, because the three brothers were sons of Timenoy from Argos. The coat of arms of the Royal House was not known, until the discovery of the tomb of Philip Ii. Then it was found that it was the so-called "Sun of Vergina», We refer directly to Allen of Herodotus and the collection of the Sun's rays by Perdikka, the alleged founder of the dynasty.

In the genealogy of the Macedonian Kings Alexander I is focal person. For most predecessors essentially nothing is known except maybe the name. Alexander's First involvement in the Persian wars turned out Macedonia from historical obscurity and the combined action of the southern Greek States and Macedonia in the geographical area of what is now Greek Macedonia, that until then belonged to different peoples Paionikoys, throw enough light on coming Kings. For Alexander's predecessors First rely on Herodotus and the complete genealogy of Macedonian Kings arises as follows.:

Aegae – Perdiccas I_ tetradrachmo_ 500 e.g.

Perdiccas I: reportedly reigned early 7^th century

Mount Erciyes 1st: He succeeded his father and reigned at the end of 7^th century

Philip I: He succeeded his father and reigned in the early 6^th century.

Statiras_Aeropos_398-395-4 b.c.

Aeropos: minor yet succeeded his father the 588 and reigned until 568 e.g..

Alketas: He succeeded his father and reigned between 568 and 540 e.g..

Amyntas I Of Constantinople: son of Alketa and father of Alexander I. Rose to the throne 540 e.g.. and gave land and water to Ambassadors of Darius. On days of Macedonia became part of the European satrapeias of Achaemenides.

Silver oktadrachmo_basileia Alexander I_460 b.c.

Alexander I: son of Amynta 1st, ascended the throne in 498 BC Was known throughout Greece during the campaign of Xerxes, so being a vassal King of the Persians («Macedonian yparchos») informing the rebellious Greeks about Persians. Before the Battle of Thermopylae alerted the Greek forces before the battle of plataea notified to the Athenians the war plan of Mardonioy. After the end of the war extended Macedonia until the Struma. When he wanted to take part in the Olympics, to whom were allowed to participate only Greeks, umpires had to prove to the Greek of origin.

Currency Perdikka II 451-413 e.g.

Perdiccas Ii: son of Alexander I. He succeeded his father the 454 BC and symbasileyse with his brother Philip, who died early.

Didrachmo _Archelaos II_399 BC

Archelaus: illegitimate son of Perdikka Ii. The 413 e.g. he usurped the throne, but emerged in worthy leader. According to Thucydides was the 9^ND King of the dynasty and made for Macedonia more than they had done all the previous Kings together. He transferred the capital from Aigai in Pella.

Macedonia on Basel Amynta II

Amyntas Ii: the 393 e.g. succeeded Archelao, reigned as the 389 BC and is often confused with the next.

Statiras_Amyntas III

Amyntas Iii: son of Arridaioy, great-grandson of Alexander a., father of Philip Ii and grandfather of Alexander the great. The 389 e.g.. He succeeded Amynta Ii and the 383 e.g.. the dethroned the Mount Erciyes, a noble from the Lynkestis. The 381 e.g.. with the help of Thessalian dethroned the Argaio and recaptured the throne as the 369 e.g..

Alexander Ii: son of Amynta Ii, He took the throne in 369 e.g.. Attacked in Thessaly, but internal wrangling forced him to return to Macedonia. The 367 e.g.. the murdered the Ptolemy, one partner from Alwro of Bottiaias, who took his sons Commissioner Amynta Iii, Perdikka and Philip.

Currency Perdikka III head of Hercules

Perdiccas Iii: son of Amynta III and Philip's eldest brother. The 365 e.g.. murdered Ptolemaeus Alwriti and rose to the throne. The 359 e.g.. killed in battle against the Illyrian, that pushed the frontiers of Macedonia chock.

Philip II

Philip Ii: He was born in 383 e.g., He was the son of Amynta Iii and Eurydice and brother of Perdikka Iii. He was initiated in Cabeiri mysteries of Samothrace at the same period with the Olympiad, daughter of Neoptolemus and sister Alexander I Of Constantinople the Molossians. It remained as a hostage in Thebes since 368 e.g.. until the 359 e.g..

The 359 e.g.. When he was informed that his eldest brother and King was killed attempting to repel the Illirians, escaped from Thebes and took over the throne of Macedonia. Won the strategic resources of Thrace, modernised the Macedonian army turning him into professional and applied aggressive and expansionist policy. Using military force and the acquisition of always eager politicians, charged by the Macedonian Hegemony in Greece. They say that he boasted more for diplomatic and strategic prudence rather than for his bravery in battle, Because naval feats were admitted all militating, While the diplomatic successes were exclusively his own.

The 357 e.g.. He married Olympiad and did with her two children, the Alexander (356 e.g.) and the Cleopatra (355 e.g.). The 338 e.g.. founded at Corinth the Combined meeting of the Greeks and declared a nationwide campaign against the Persians. The 337 He sent troops in Asia, to proparaskeyasoyn invasion, and the next year was murdered at the behest of Grand King the theatre of Aigai in his daughter's weddings, Cleopatra.

Alexander III the great

Alexander Iii the great: son of Philip Ii and Olympias. He succeeded his father the 336 e.g., the following year imposed its sovereignty in all Thrakikoys folks as the Istro, destroyed Thebes and exegertheisa 334 invaded Asia. Subjugated the whole Achaemenid Empire and India up to the river Yfasi. He died in June 323 in Babylon.

THE Plutarch He says he was born on 6^the Ekatomvaionos, i.e. the 21^the Jul 356 e.g.. When Arriano, lived 32 years and 8 months, with reverse measurement from the 13^the June 323 e.g., the absolutely certain date of death that gives us Plutarch, We find as the birth date October 356 e.g.. This is a very typical example of how insecure method is the combination of information from different sources, but in this case the difference of about three months in date of birth is not a problem.

For the birth of Alexander recorded various omens, supposedly prominyan the victorious action of, though we should certainly constructed a posteriori. Plutarch says that Philip had just overwhelmed the Potidaea, When he got three messages: the Parmenion He won the Illirians in great battle, a horse beat at the Olympics and Finally he was born Alexander. Still says that the day of his birth was burned the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, something that was seen as a bad omen for the fate of Asia, the orator Hegesias from the Magnesia listening to the Association allegedly sarkase that it made sense to burn the Temple of Artemis, After as Patron Goddess of childbirth was busy with the momentous event of the birth of Alexander. THE Justin He says that at birth two eagles stayed on the roof of the family home all day, prolegontas its sovereignty in Europe and Asia.

Roman medal issued on Caracalla which represents the Olympiad.

His mother Olympiad, It has been described as impulsive and jealous, While not delivered any positive element of the character of, which raises the suspicion that he had been a victim of slander. We must not forget that Philip was very flirtatious and that Olympias was the third, or fourth out of a total of six or seven wives, While it is unknown the number of mistresses of. With all others, wives and mistresses, did children and created in Olympiad reasonable anxiety for the succession of her son, the only male child of Philip True.

Philip Arridaios_archaiologiko Museum of Naples

Another male child of, the Philip Arridaios, It was illegitimate, something that though has not prevented others in the past to occupy the throne, like didn't stop eventually and Arridaio himself to succeed Alexander. The physical condition of Arridaioy seems that gave another impetus to propaganda to hurt the reputation of the Olympics. It is assumed that in the early years of his life was a remarkable boy and that Olympias with various poisons disturb the physical and mental health.

Other propaganda spurious spin is the story that Philip saw her sleeping with a Dragon beside her, feared that someone God transformed into a reptile syneyriskotan with his wife and so I psychrathike with her. This looks to be a good reason for the divorce of Philip from that spouse, However not delivered the reasons for the rest of diazygia.

It is assumed that it was Philip, because the Oracle of Delphi certified with Oracle that the Sands had transformed him the Dragon and the Cuckold husband would lose his eye for punishment, that kryfokoitaxe God. The Oracle reportedly was verified during the siege of Methone, so Philip traymatisthike in the eye, and blinded. Do not avoid the temptation to recall that the Jupiter had she has sexual intercourse with the Alcmene, wife King of Thebes Amfitrywna and fruit of the collaboration was Hercules. So proportions between propaganda creation for the divine origin of Alexander and the legend for the ancestor may not be random.

Kassandros

Reasons to campaign at the expense of the Olympiad were mainly Philip, to justify the rejection of the wife who gave him a genuine successor, the Kassandros, She had suffered heavy attacks from both Alexander and from the Olympiad, which furthermore bebilwse the grave of his brother, But Alexander himself, they chose to implement the administrative standard of Orientals God-King. Will never be able to see through the veil of slander the real character of Olympias, He probably was quite different than that delivered. Because she was the daughter King, He knew very well the anaktorikes intrigues, How to cope with the alliances of opponents and how to safeguard the interests of her son on the throne.

In Olympiad katamartyreitai mixing in politics, so before Alexander become King, and until the last days of. One theory wants Olympics involvement as one of the factors, that prompted the Antipatro to arrange the assassination of Alexander with poison. The information of Plutarch that Alexander "She was the mother of many gifts, but not allowed to meddle in the political or military stuff"simply means that Alexander nor consult nor had been appointed to this role, not that she does not intervene. Given the marginal status of women in ancient Greece it was inevitable to cause the wrath of many eminent men, and certainly its rivals.

The influence of Olympias to Alexander was important, both because of the physical relationship between mother and son and marital instability of Philip, that create insecurity in conditionally successor. The head of the first educators and tutors of Alexander was a relative of the Olympiad, Leonidas. Another teacher, the L. Akarnanas, It is said that he called himself Phoenix. Several younger mostly writers attribute it to Alexander admiration or even identification with Achilles, but not on the basis of available sources. The information that Alexander under his pillow beside the manual had a copy of Iliad, derived from the Onisikrito and therefore are not reliable.

Alexander (left) and Ifaistiwn_moyseio Gkety

The only reliable information about the subject is that as soon as apobibasthikan in Asia, He filed a wreath on the grave of Achilles and the Ifaistiwn STOU Patroklou. Though this may simply mean the start of a new campaign Trwikis, Since it was the first national campaign after the Trojan war.

When Alexander was 13 years and had to start the next cycle studies, Philip removed him from Pella and sent him in Nymphaion of mieza. New teacher took over the Aristotle from stageira and tuition of included the reconstruction of the birthplace of the philosopher by Philip, they had earlier destroyed, as well as the restoration of exiles and exandrapodismenwn Stageiritwn. In addition to moral and political taught Alexander and some deeper and secret doctrines, which they called "akroatikes and supervisory».

When Alexander them now in Asia, He learned that Aristotle had issued some relevant books, allegedly sent letter, that complained about the publication. Noted in the old master that, If these teachings were all estate, I have been treated spiritually the few to the many, and that the same more interested to Excel the other in spirit rather than in another domain.

Alexander visits the Diogeni_pinakas of Jean-Baptiste_Regnault

About Alexander's interest for philosophy says that when Alexander went to Isthmus of Corinth (probably on the occasion of the convening of the Joint Conference of the Greeks 336-5 e.g.), He wanted to see the famous cynical philosopher Diogenes by Sinope. He went as the jar with ypaspistes and the pezetairoys and found him lying in the Sun. Asked what useful could offer and kynosofos told to leave himself and the sequence from front of, because of hiding the Sun. The general culture was the same with all senior social Greek, After the Harpalus sent to over (East) Asia books of Filistoy, several tragedies of Euripides, of Sophocles of Aeschylus and packaged them in Telestoy and of the Accommodating. Since the geographical knowledge of the ancient Greeks to Asia was incomplete, Alexander came to the wrong conclusion when he was in India.

From Plutarch's information shows that Alexander felt either competition to his father or insecurity, because the fickle erotic life of Philip kept in constant risk of inheritance of permissions. This uncertainty seems forced Alexander to constantly demonstrates his skills, as he describes the information that "He often expressed concern that his father would not leave any feat, to show the value of». The justified fears of Alexander verified, When at dinner on the occasion of the marriage of Philip the Cleopatra the Attalus wished to be born a genuine heir to the throne. Then Alexander outraged of flew in skyfo saying: «We athlie, you look for nothoi;». Philip challenged, He pulled his sword and moved against his son, but from the busted parapatise, to collect the sneer of Alexander: «He well, that is preparing to invade from Europe to Asia, grandma trying to pass from one bed to another!».

After that Alexander sent his mother's relatives on the continent and he resorted to the Illirians. Alone the fact that sought refuge in the always dangerous for Macedonia Illirians, puts us in reflections on his own intentions about his father or his father about him. It is clear that Philip got gravely offensive words of his son before all partners, because as we hear from the banished them personal friends Arriano of Alexander, Ptolemaeus of Lagoy, Harpalus of Machatas, Nearchos of Androtimoy, Erigyio and Laomedon of Larichoy, in an apparent attempt to deprive him of any foothold in the yard. When they returned from exile were restored to their former locations and because increased Alexander's confidence in their faces, the army later took leading positions. THE Ptolemy was a bodyguard, the Erygios Allied ipparchis, his brother Laomedon, who were bilingual, took the barbaric captives, the Harpalus was thisayrofylakas and the Nearhos initially satrap and eventually Admiral of the fleet all the way from the Ydaspi as Babylon.

Work of the French painter,Francois Schommer which depicted Alexander to the Boykefala_peri tames the 1935

With regard to Philip's feelings towards his son, recorded with clarity that loved him and appreciate him and that he intended for his successor. When to the surprise of all, Alexander the damase Alexandria bucephalous, Philip said to him "My child, Zeta Kingdom isaxio Sou, because Macedonia not to fit». When Philip was campaigning against Byzantium, appointed Deputy Alexander. He though 16 years campaigned against Maidwn, they found opportunity to rise up, the crashed, they drove away from their city, the epoikise with mixed population and renamed to Alexandroupoli.

Of Course, This information could have constructed a posteriori, to show that from an early age seemed how big it would become Alexander, However the important thing is that generally Philip nowhere does not occur with negative predisposition towards Alexander, rather said to rejoice, When we called him General and Alexander King. The clearest evidence that Philip intended Alexander for his successor is given by the following incident.

When he sent the Parmeniwna and the Attalus in m. Asia, to prepare for the invasion of the main forces, the Pixwdaros, the usurper of recessive to the Persians throne of Caria, He was pretty sure about the success of the project and rushed to benefit suggesting kinship and Alliance. Then the Olympias and several friends persuaded Alexander, his father negotiated the marriage of his son with the fictitious Group, his daughter Kara King, because he had decided the crowding the. The always insecure about his rights to the throne Alexander sent in Pixwdaro a tragic actor from Corinth, the Moldavia, with message to prefer to groom him, that was a genuine son of Philip instead of Arridaioy, that was illegitimate and not healthy mentally. The unexpected Pixwdaro kolakeyse the counter-proposal and infuriated Philip, you just learned went to Alexander's room with a loyal partner and friend, the Filota of Parmeniwna, epetimise strictly his son calling him irreducible and unworthy for the surrounding of the goods, After you chose as a father-in-law barbarian, He was a slave to the barbaric King. By Plutarch, Alexander's friends, Harpalus, Nearhos, Frygios and Ptolemy, He had drifted to this action were evicted, If and when Arriano, that was based on the memoir of Ptolemy, the exile imposed on them after the misunderstanding the wedding dinner.

The ten thousand exclaiming Thalassa – Thalassa!!_ Bernard Granville Baker's table, 1901

With regard to military training and especially in the fields of tactics and strategy is not mentioned in ancient sources. Though from the information of Plutarch, that from an early age she was asking the Persians ambassadors for the military organization of the State, We conclude that part of the amazing organization, He had done Philip, was the collection of critical information for Persia. The feat of Myriwn It was relatively recent and had shocked the Greek world, so for the first time the Greeks orators (as political analysts) to realise the potential of their military forces and the weaknesses of the Persian war machine. The first Greek politicians, they wanted to see this fact was the Jason of Ferron and Philip of Macedonia. Thus Alexander must know if not all writings Xenophon, However the Cyrus Climb, containing the instructions, How to move the Army invasion in Persian territory. For the accuracy, It turns out that Alexander had studied at least this project, because already in European campaign used the askoschedies She had seen the Xenophon in Assyria, and mainly because it applied pressure rapid advance and direct fray with the Persian forces, as they had done and the ten thousand.

For such an important historical figure like Alexander, who lived before 25 centuries and survived four minutes works only writers and those not full, It's perfectly reasonable separation failure between propaganda and reality. The question, therefore, whether the success of the campaign is its own achievements and whether the Administration can be given safe response. What is certain is that the Macedonian team was staffed with officers, the other Greek States had ceased from decades to have, and abilities of staff of outright major proved by successfully holding and governance of conquered peoples some time after the death of Alexander.

In India, the easternmost edge of possessions, 500 years later continued to govern Greek Kings and West about three centuries later, Despite the conquest of nearly all of the territories by the Romans, the Greek imposed Alexander remained the official language of Asian territories. Because before Philip Macedonian state was between servitude and limited sovereignty, While immediately after the assassination of his successor became the most famous conqueror in history of mankind, doesn't fit the slightest doubt that both the Macedonians makers as Alexander himself were creations of Philip's organization strategy.

The query for the value of Alexander in connection specifically with the Parmeniwna in the field of strategy and tactical becomes even harder to answer, because the ordered murder of old General imposed the further degradation of the contribution of. So we will never know if it's real objections, It is recorded that he had the Fairytales. There is no doubt that Parmenion disappear, After he had crushed the regular army of Persians and after he had delivered the entire political and military leadership of the Empire. Indeed after the death of Alexander Parmeniwna not encountered another regular army equivalent of the Persian. Who may underestimate the abilities of Alexander, When in Sogdiana He managed to avoid a crash, even if we had to pay with an unwanted marriage

The battle of Granikoy_pinakas of Charles_Le_Brun,_ 1665

The Court attributed to the metathanatiws propaganda Parmeniwna misguided proposals at major competitions and selections. When the army arrived at Graniko It was already afternoon and the Persians arranged on the opposite bank. The Fairytales reportedly proposed attack early the next dawn, before they can take out boxes the Persians, While Alexander has chosen the direct involvement. I.e. the Parmenion suggested a stratagem (tactical trick) like those describing the Polyaenus, While Alexander preferred to follow the instructions Xenophon. Having taken this decision, left to spend the aquatic obstacle with minimal casualties from the Persian toxeymata burst. Chosen to precede a small section horsemen, I pulled the toxeymata of paraplanithentwn the Persians and the rest passed without losses. The authorship of this choice is unknown and implicitly attributed to Alexander.

In Gaygamila Alexander again wanted the direct involvement, but the Parmenion convinced him to wait up to recognize sufficiently the ground. Then the Parmenion reportedly suggested nocturnal RAID, to scan the Persian lines. Alexander feared especially coordinating their forces because of the extended front and denied. Darius, who knew that the night attack was usual Greek regular, feared that will be applied and took the marshaled forces on the ground all night. So hit the morale of soldiers and helped Alexander to win. In this battle, the last great tactics throughout the campaign and Parmeniwna, the communicators of Alexander took the opportunity to implant raw pretexts for the execution of.

Total, from the Battle of Issus doesn't show anything useful in our approach and of the battles of Granicus and of Gaugamela It appears the Fairytales to seek fast break of the enemy, But Alexander prefers direct and frontal attack, in order to not be able to develop in the army of bad psychology due towards the overriding Persian forces and to use the previous victories as a ptoisis factor of the opponent.

412px-the fall of MIlitoy_ergo of Andre_Castaigne_(1898-1899)

In Miletus the Fairytales reportedly suggested conducting maritime operations alongside land and Alexander to the rejected. Of Course, just a few weeks later was forced to conduct naval operations, mainly defensive, to protect the Islands from the attacks of the Persian fleet, However this decision of Alexander wasn't completely wrong. His mistake was the demise of the fleet rather than the decision to avoid head-on confrontation with the Persian fleet. THE fleet of Joint Conference numbered 160 ships, While the Persian 400, that's why Alexander preferred to sever from the supply bases of capturing the Mediterranean. The choice was then, After the Persian fleet, that consisted mainly of Cypriot and Palm trees, overpowered when he had occupied the entire coastline as the Tyros. It is therefore by no means certain that a naval engagement, as suggested by Parmenion, would have more positive than negative effects.

Roman bust of a Greek General which might belong in Parmeniwna_400 p. Ch_moyseio Vatican

If misguided opinion of Parmeniwna is not totally trumped, the truth might be hidden behind another crucial choice. The proposal of Parmeniwna to Alexander, to accept what's offered by Darius second letter and to capitulate by entry into force, It was entirely consistent with the decisions of the Joint Conference of the Greeks as well as the political and military education. But Alexander rejected, because I just wanted to match the common decision to punish the Persians with his personal quest to become myself Grand King in place of the great King.

Plutarch delivers that Alexander had possible xaraktira, don't flinch at brawls unless peithotan with logical arguments and therefore Philip rather convinces him only the commands. Exagriwnotan and paraferotan, When he said he loves the glory more than power or his life, but in the country of Mallwn We need to understand completely the difference between General and soldier. When he learned that two Macedonians, the Damon and the Timotheos, were you suddenly committed sacrilege on women synakoloythoyses some mercenaries, the boss ordered Parmeniwna to investigate the matter and, If the allegations wrong, to punish the perpetrators "as if they were wild animals». Alexander was General Emperor, attempting to extended front against him as then kosmokratora and we couldn't expect anything less from imposing discipline on the army of iron.

With regard to the other elements of his character, It is said that they were generally rough and impetuous, but don't pander to bodily pleasures. In the early years of his life was taught the frugality of the Leonida, who controlled probing individual items did Olympias had given hidden more or by absolute necessary befall. As an additional element of the egkrateias we can consider and the fixed order of the host of expenses do not exceed the 10.000 Greek drachmas. But it seems that only the Temperance in eating and in luxury accompanied him until the end. While originally drank a little, during the operations in Sogdia was marching towards alcoholism, After the death of Ifaistiwna the army now suspend on full round-the-clock on course and expect Alexander to recover from the busted the previous night.

Arrian

After the death of Darius was 'especially greedy for praise» and «Although I could [due to the education of] to understand better, He remained bound by the thirst for glory"says Arrian to sum up succinctly the change in character of. This change is mainly exwterikeythike by adopting the consolidated administrative template and Oriental all components of, like the Oriental clothing, God-King and the proskynisi of. To understand how outrageous was the adoption of barbarian customs, enough to ensure that the Aristotleò taught to Alexander and of course to all his disciples to bring "to the Greeks, although like in friends or relatives, the barbarians are not like animals or plants».

«He was incorruptible, but did he profusely donations, to meet others», i.e. the bribe, in order to cooperate willingly. The first corruption partners by Alexander lies on the eve of disembarkation in Asia, When they distributed the Royal estate. It is said that Perdiccas asked him what kept to himself and to the response of Alexander "the hopes"refused to accept the estate of King saying that he would wait to get the estate of Darius. Apart from the corruption here is one first connotation of Alexander's intent to not return again in Macedonia, Perhaps the first expression of the aspirations of Perdikka.

As was advancing deeper into Asia, the army and the less consistent with the mandate of the Joint Conference of Greeks be decisions of Alexander, so stronger were the reactions of the Macedonians of the old guard, increasingly had to rely on younger officers, becoming harder opponents and more generous was supposed to be the benefits of, to re-purchase the obedience of the willing. When Alexander returned from India, found that in the absence of many of the exagorasmenoys officials of, not waiting to review live, proved corrupt and predatory administration exercised thereby undoubtedly enrage them vassals peoples and endanger peace, he needed inside the Empire.

The extremely risky nature of resulted in injured many times, several especially serious. In the battle of the Granicus a blow kopidas broke in two the helmet and the wounded slightly on the head, at the battle of Issos thigh traymatisthike by sword, the siege of the Palestinian Gaza seriously traymatisthike in the shoulder from arrow catapult, that pierced the shield and thorax. In a clearing operation against rebels close to Sogdianwn Iaxarti an arrow hit him in the Shin and broke a piece out of the date., While at the siege of Kyroypolis was severely hit by rocks in the head and neck. The siege of a city of traymatisthike shoulder Aspiwn slightly by arrow, that the puncture of chest wall, the siege of Massagwn slightly traymatisthike in the ankle by arrow and the siege of the city of Mallwn traymatisthike near miss deadly from arrow in the chest. Plutarch believes that Alexander never fully healed from last trauma, that maybe he knew himself and that this led him to death nearly three years later.

Another element of his character appeared in his teens, When the 340 e.g. subjugated them Maidoys and according to Plutarch gave his name (Alexandropoli) in one city. Two years earlier the same had done and his father, when Macedonia was dismissed from the Illirians, He won the once powerful Odryses and was preparing to assert the Hegemony of Greece. But mutatis mutandis and Alexander did not pass something inferior. It was just 16 years, Regent of Macedonia and defeated a rugged oresibio people during the absence of Philip in campaign. Nevertheless the energy will certainly was regarded by his contemporaries as impudence and arrogance. We are judging the achievements must conclude that from very early distinguished great confidence, After a decade later, Alexander was perfectly justified, When organized one Alexandria after another.

The example of Philip and Alexander followed the rulers of the Hellenistic period, that gave cities of Europe, Asia and Africa their names or the names of their husbands, όπως Seleucia, Antioch, Kassandreia, Thessaloniki, Apamea. Then it was perfectly natural to follow the same practice the Romans (Edirne, Traianoupoli, Pompei etc), the Byzantines (Κωνσταντινούπολη, Eraclea etc) and European countries with imperial concept until long after the period of the great Explorations. So Kings, successors, explorers and adventurers gave their names to new (for Europeans) Islands (όπως Philippines, Marshall, Cook, Tasmania), countries (όπως Colombia, Rhodesia), even across continents (America).

Lion of Chaeronea

THE physique Alexander was not commensurate with the achievements of. In contrast to the Darius and his family, She was tall, He was so adorable, so the mother of Darius to suggest that King was the most Beefy Ifaistiwn and so need a table for his feet, not top floor, When Susa sat on the throne of Darius. It is also said that He did not know swimming, However none of these did not prevent fighting with bravery in the forefront. In Battle of Chaeronea at the age of 18 olds said that first broke through the lines of Ierou Lochou Thebes, in the battle of the Granicus was located just behind the misleading part and around it was the most stubborn ippomachia. Generally fought in the ranks of the Royal Cavalry corporate course, but whenever the situation demanded, led and other military departments. When the Tyrioi took by surprise and aposyntonisan the Cypriot fleet, came in at a pentiri and managed to repel them. Once triggered the decisive rift in walls of tyre, He was among the first who stepped. Στην siege of Saggalwn seeing that the cavalry could not overcome the enemy obstacles, xepezepse and attacked the Kathaioys Head of the Phalanx.

According to his pupil Aristotle, the philosopher Aristoxeno the Tarantino, Alexander was exactly as depicted the statues of Lysippus, his head was slightly to the left and his gaze was wet. His skin was white, and because highlighted sufficiently that the Apelles made a mistake in the table, that the depicted keraynoforo like Jupiter, and that yielded very dark, We conclude that were typically white. In addition he had a slight reddish tint in person and had no beard, While in several performances, as in famous mosaic of Pompeii, illustrated with typical sidebar. It is important to note that other partners, about peers, as the Ifaistiwn, also charted without beard. Several Hellenistic Kings they appear ageneioi leading us to the conclusion that Alexander introduced this trend, While the generation of Philip, both Greek and barbarian States, Beard stood out the men from the boys.

It seems that some ancient Greek writers had indulged in leaps to conceal that Alexander was as flirtatious with his father. Plutarch makes this attempt so clumsy, so shows like not really wanted to replicate the Court propaganda. Specifically says that Alexander believed the tall and beautiful Blinds "torment for the eyes», but it was so abstinent, in order to treat them like inanimate statues. At The Same Time, We don't hide that contracted relationships with fine and scholarly Barsine from whom he had a son, the Hercules. The saved Greek and Roman historians claim that Alexander had no involvement in the case unexplained pregnancy wife of Darius. End, the Roman historians attribute the authorship of another son of the Queen of Assakinwn Kleofida, but this story evokes so vividly Julius Caesar, Cleopatra and their son, so be discarded as fake.

Apart from the above two nobles and captive Blinds Alexander is not recorded to contracted relationships with other women, Perhaps because these were not superior origin. Plutarch denies that Alexander entered into relations with the "as the days of the year"and normally noble origin concubines, inherited from Darius, When it finally became Grand King, King of Kings and King of Asia. The first wife, the Roxane, It was unknown class Baktria and married, to move away from business backwater Sogdian. The marriage that was imposed by the despair and overshadowed another, that Alexander was preparing carefully for years. Nymfeyomenos as first (perhaps unique) wife of one of the two daughters of Darius, We have brought together the Royal Nursing of Argead and of Achaemenides and will ensure the same descendants of the rights to the throne of King of Asia. Things, however, forced him to take her as a second wife.

The Roxana with Alexander IV son of Max. Alexandroy_pinakas of Allesandro Varotari_1588-1648

Alexander Iv: He was born in 323, a few months after the death of his father, Alexander Iii. The army in Babylon proclaimed him King, together with the Arridaio Philip under the tutelage, initially the Perdikka and after the Antipatroy. Practically lived prisoner and eventually murdered the 311 at the age of 12 years with his mother, Roxane, from the Kassandros in Amphipolis. His grave is at Aigai (Vergína), next to the Tomb of Philip Ii

 

Sources

Herodotus a. 88, H. 93, 137-139

Xenophon Anabasis A.V. 9, G. II. 25

Arrian a. 23, C. 6, G. 2, G. 28

Plutarch Alexander 2, 3.1-9, 4.1-3, 4.8, 5.1, 5.4, 6.8, 7.1, 7.5-9, 9.1, 9.4-JV, 10, 21.10, 22.1-4, 23, 28.6, 39.11-13, 42.4, 45.3-Mrs e, 58.6, 67.7, 68.3-5, 75.1

On the Fortune or virtue of Alexander 329. B

Diodorus XVI. 21.4, 54.3, 95.3, Q.. 66.3-7

Justin 9.8.1, 11.11.3, 12.16.5)

Posted by Xeilwn in HISTORY